Forests are vital ecosystems that provide numerous ecological, economic, and social benefits to humanity and the planet. They are home to an estimated 80% of the world's terrestrial biodiversity, regulate the global water and carbon cycles, and support the livelihoods and well-being of over 1.6 billion people, particularly in developing countries (FAO, 2020). However, forests are also under severe threat from human activities, with an estimated 420 million hectares of forest lost since 1990, mostly due to agricultural expansion (FAO, 2020).
Deforestation, defined as the permanent removal of forest cover for other land uses, such as agriculture, urbanization, or mining, is a major driver of climate change, biodiversity loss, and ecosystem degradation. Agriculture, in particular, is the leading cause of deforestation, accounting for around 80% of global forest loss (Hosonuma et al., 2012). The expansion of agricultural land for crop production, livestock grazing, and plantation forestry is driven by various factors, such as population growth, changing diets, and increasing demand for agricultural commodities.
The impact of deforestation by agriculture is far-reaching and multifaceted, affecting not only the environment but also the economy, society, and human health. Deforestation contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, soil degradation, water pollution, and the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. It also exacerbates poverty, inequality, and conflict, particularly for indigenous and local communities who depend on forests for their livelihoods and cultural identity.
Addressing the challenge of deforestation by agriculture requires a comprehensive and integrated approach that tackles the underlying drivers and incentives while promoting sustainable and inclusive agricultural practices and policies. This includes measures such as improving land-use planning and governance, supporting sustainable intensification and agroforestry, promoting responsible supply chains and trade, and investing in research and innovation.
Drivers of Deforestation by Agriculture
Global and Regional Trends
Deforestation by agriculture is a global phenomenon that varies in its extent, intensity, and drivers across different regions and countries. According to the FAO (2020), the world lost an estimated 420 million hectares of forest between 1990 and 2020, an area larger than India. The rate of deforestation has slowed down in recent years, from an average of 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s to 10 million hectares per year in the 2010s, but it remains alarmingly high in many regions.
The highest rates of deforestation are found in the tropics, particularly in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. In South America, the Amazon rainforest, the world's largest tropical forest, lost an estimated 30 million hectares between 1990 and 2020, mostly due to the expansion of cattle ranching and soybean production in Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay (FAO, 2020). In Africa, the Congo Basin, the world's second-largest tropical forest, lost an estimated 20 million hectares in the same period, mainly due to smallholder agriculture, fuelwood collection, and charcoal production in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, and Gabon (FAO, 2020). In Southeast Asia, the islands of Sumatra and Borneo lost an estimated 15 million hectares of forest, primarily due to the expansion of oil palm and timber plantations in Indonesia and Malaysia (FAO, 2020).
In contrast, some regions have experienced a net gain in forest cover, such as Europe, North America, and East Asia. This is largely due to the abandonment of marginal agricultural land, the implementation of reforestation and afforestation programs, and the transition to more intensive and efficient agricultural systems. However, these gains are often offset by the displacement of deforestation to other regions through international trade and investment flows, a phenomenon known as "leakage" or "indirect land-use change" (Meyfroidt et al., 2013).
Proximate and Underlying Causes
The drivers of deforestation by agriculture can be classified into proximate (direct) and underlying (indirect) causes. Proximate causes are the immediate activities that lead to forest loss, such as agricultural expansion, wood extraction, and infrastructure development. Underlying causes are the broader socio-economic, political, and cultural factors that influence land-use decisions and create the incentives for deforestation.
The main proximate causes of deforestation by agriculture are:
- Commercial agriculture: The expansion of large-scale, export-oriented agricultural production, such as soybean, oil palm, and plantation forestry, is a major driver of deforestation, particularly in Latin America and Southeast Asia. For example, soybean expansion accounted for nearly half of the deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon between 2001 and 2006 (Morton et al., 2006), while oil palm expansion was responsible for over 50% of the deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia between 1990 and 2010 (Koh & Wilcove, 2008).
- Subsistence agriculture: The expansion of small-scale, subsistence-oriented agricultural production, such as shifting cultivation and agroforestry, is a significant driver of deforestation, particularly in Africa and Southeast Asia. For example, smallholder agriculture accounted for over 80% of the deforestation in the Democratic Republic of Congo between 2000 and 2010 (Tyukavina et al., 2018), while shifting cultivation was responsible for around 30% of the deforestation in Myanmar between 2002 and 2014 (Bhagwat et al., 2017).
- Cattle ranching: The expansion of cattle ranching for beef production is a major driver of deforestation, particularly in Latin America. For example, cattle ranching accounted for over 70% of the deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon between 1990 and 2005 (Barona et al., 2010), and continues to be the main driver of forest loss in the region.
The main underlying causes of deforestation by agriculture are:
- Population growth and urbanization: The increasing global population and the migration of people from rural to urban areas create a growing demand for food, fuel, and other agricultural products, which can lead to the conversion of forests to agricultural land. For example, Africa's population is projected to double by 2050, which could lead to the loss of over 100 million hectares of forest if current trends continue (Ordway et al., 2017).
- Economic growth and changing diets: The increasing affluence and changing dietary preferences of people, particularly in developing countries, can drive the demand for resource-intensive agricultural products, such as meat, dairy, and processed foods. For example, the growing demand for beef in China has been linked to the expansion of soybean production and deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon (Fearnside et al., 2013).
- International trade and investment: The globalization of agricultural markets and the increasing flow of capital and technology across borders can create incentives for agricultural expansion and deforestation, particularly in countries with weak governance and land-use planning. For example, the European Union's demand for biofuels has been linked to the expansion of oil palm plantations and deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia (Valin et al., 2015).
- Policies and institutions: The policies and institutions that govern land use and tenure, such as agricultural subsidies, land concessions, and property rights, can create incentives for deforestation or forest conservation, depending on their design and implementation. For example, the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) mechanism, which provides financial incentives for forest conservation in developing countries, has been shown to reduce deforestation in some cases but has also been criticized for its social and environmental impacts (Angelsen et al., 2018).
Case Studies and Examples
To illustrate the drivers and dynamics of deforestation by agriculture, we present three case studies from different regions and contexts:
Soybean expansion in the Brazilian Amazon
The Brazilian Amazon is the world's largest tropical forest and a global biodiversity hotspot, but it has lost over 20% of its original forest cover, mostly due to agricultural expansion. Soybean production, in particular, has been a major driver of deforestation in the region, driven by the growing demand for animal feed and biofuels in Europe and Asia. Between 2000 and 2006, soybean expansion accounted for nearly half of the deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon, with an average of 14,000 square kilometers of forest lost per year (Morton et al., 2006). This deforestation was facilitated by a combination of factors, including the availability of cheap land and labor, the development of new soybean varieties adapted to the Amazon climate, and the expansion of transportation and storage infrastructure. In response to international pressure and domestic regulations, such as the Soy Moratorium and the Forest Code, the rate of soybean-driven deforestation has declined in recent years, but the threat of indirect land-use change and leakage remains (Gollnow & Lakes, 2014).
Oil palm expansion in Indonesia and Malaysia
Indonesia and Malaysia are the world's largest producers of palm oil, a versatile and lucrative vegetable oil used in a wide range of products, from food and cosmetics to biofuels. The expansion of oil palm plantations has been a major driver of deforestation in both countries, particularly in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo, which are home to some of the world's most biodiverse and carbon-rich forests. Between 1990 and 2010, oil palm expansion accounted for over 50% of the deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia, with an average of 340,000 hectares of forest lost per year (Koh & Wilcove, 2008). This deforestation was driven by a combination of factors, including the growing global demand for palm oil, the government policies and incentives that promote oil palm development, and the weak enforcement of environmental and social safeguards. In response to international pressure and voluntary sustainability standards, such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), some companies and governments have committed to zero-deforestation and sustainable oil palm production, but the effectiveness and scalability of these initiatives remain limited (Pacheco et al., 2021).
Smallholder agriculture in the Congo Basin
The Congo Basin is the world's second-largest tropical forest and a crucial carbon sink and biodiversity reservoir, but it is under increasing pressure from agricultural expansion and other human activities. Smallholder agriculture, in particular, is the main driver of deforestation in the region, driven by the growing population and the limited access to alternative livelihoods and land-use options. Between 2000 and 2010, smallholder agriculture accounted for over 80% of the deforestation in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the largest country in the Congo Basin, with an average of 3,700 square kilometers of forest lost per year (Tyukavina et al., 2018). This deforestation is often associated with shifting cultivation, a traditional agricultural system that involves the clearing of small patches of forest for crop production and the subsequent fallowing and regeneration of the land. While shifting cultivation can be sustainable under certain conditions, such as low population density and long fallow periods, it can also lead to forest degradation and loss when practiced intensively or extensively. To address this challenge, various initiatives have been proposed or implemented, such as community forestry, agroforestry, and payments for ecosystem services, but their effectiveness and equity remain uncertain (Moonen et al., 2016).
Impacts of Deforestation by Agriculture
Environmental Impacts
Deforestation by agriculture has profound and far-reaching impacts on the environment, affecting biodiversity, climate, water, and soil. Some of the main environmental impacts are:
Biodiversity loss
Forests are home to an estimated 80% of the world's terrestrial biodiversity, including countless species of plants, animals, and microorganisms that are essential for the functioning and resilience of ecosystems (FAO, 2020). Deforestation leads to the loss, fragmentation, and degradation of habitats, which can cause the extinction or decline of many species, particularly those that are endemic, specialized, or sensitive to disturbance. For example, the expansion of oil palm plantations in Indonesia and Malaysia has been linked to the decline of iconic species such as the orangutan, the Sumatran tiger, and the Bornean elephant (Fitzherbert et al., 2008). Biodiversity loss not only affects the intrinsic value and evolutionary potential of species but also the provision of ecosystem services, such as pollination, pest control, and nutrient cycling, which are essential for agricultural production and human well-being.
Climate change
Forests play a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate by absorbing and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and biomass accumulation. Deforestation releases this stored carbon back into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming and climate change. According to the IPCC (2019), deforestation and other land-use changes accounted for around 23% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions between 2007 and 2016, with an estimated 5.2 GtCO2 per year. This makes deforestation the second-largest source of greenhouse gas emissions after fossil fuel combustion. In addition to carbon emissions, deforestation also affects the climate by altering the surface albedo, evapotranspiration, and other biophysical processes that influence temperature, precipitation, and circulation patterns. For example, deforestation in the Amazon has been linked to reduced rainfall and increased drought risk in the region, with potential impacts on agriculture, hydropower, and water security (Spracklen & Garcia-Carreras, 2015).
Water cycle and quality
Forests play a vital role in the water cycle by intercepting, absorbing, and filtering water from precipitation and runoff. Forests also regulate the flow and quality of water by reducing erosion, sedimentation, and pollution, and by maintaining the stability and permeability of soils. Deforestation disrupts these hydrological functions, leading to increased runoff, flooding, and water scarcity, as well as reduced water quality and aquatic biodiversity. For example, deforestation in the Mekong River Basin has been linked to increased sediment loads, nutrient pollution, and saltwater intrusion, with impacts on fisheries, agriculture, and human health (Ziv et al., 2012). Deforestation can also affect the availability and accessibility of freshwater for downstream communities and ecosystems, particularly in regions with high population growth and water stress.
Soil degradation
Forests protect and enrich soils by providing organic matter, nutrients, and structural stability through root systems and litter decomposition. Deforestation exposes soils to erosion, compaction, and depletion, reducing their fertility, productivity, and carbon storage capacity. For example, deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon has been linked to soil erosion rates of up to 20 tons per hectare per year, leading to the loss of nutrients, organic matter, and water retention capacity (Durigan et al., 2017). Soil degradation not only affects the sustainability and resilience of agricultural systems but also the provision of other ecosystem services, such as water purification, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation. Soil degradation can also have feedback effects on the climate, by reducing the capacity of soils to store carbon and regulate temperature and moisture.
Socio-Economic Impacts
Deforestation by agriculture also has significant socio-economic impacts, affecting the livelihoods, health, and well-being of people, particularly indigenous and local communities who depend on forests for their subsistence and cultural identity. Some of the main socio-economic impacts are:
Livelihood and income loss
Forests provide a wide range of products and services that support the livelihoods and incomes of over 1.6 billion people, particularly in developing countries (FAO, 2018). These include timber, fuelwood, food, medicine, and other non-timber forest products, as well as ecosystem services such as water regulation, soil fertility, and biodiversity conservation. Deforestation can lead to the loss or degradation of these resources, reducing the income and food security of forest-dependent communities. For example, deforestation in the Congo Basin has been linked to the decline of bushmeat, a key source of protein and income for many rural households, with impacts on nutrition and health (Fa et al., 2015). Deforestation can also affect the availability and accessibility of forest resources for future generations, undermining the sustainability and resilience of local livelihoods.
Displacement and conflict
Deforestation by agriculture often involves the appropriation and conversion of forest land by external actors, such as companies, investors, or government agencies, leading to the displacement and marginalization of indigenous and local communities. This can result in the loss of customary land rights, cultural heritage, and social cohesion, as well as increased exposure to poverty, violence, and human rights abuses. For example, the expansion of oil palm plantations in Indonesia has been associated with land grabs, forced evictions, and social conflicts, affecting over 600 communities and 700,000 hectares of land (Colchester et al., 2006). Displacement and conflict can also have spillover effects on other sectors and regions, such as increased migration, urbanization, and political instability.
Health and well-being
Forests provide various health benefits, such as clean air and water, medicinal plants, and mental and physical well-being. Deforestation can lead to the loss or degradation of these benefits, as well as increased exposure to environmental hazards, such as air pollution, water contamination, and infectious diseases. For example, deforestation in the Amazon has been linked to an increased incidence of malaria, a mosquito-borne disease that thrives in deforested areas with high humidity and sunlight (Olson et al., 2010). Deforestation can also affect the mental health and cultural identity of forest-dependent communities, by disrupting their social networks, spiritual practices, and sense of place. The loss of forest resources and ecosystem services can also exacerbate poverty and inequality, which are key determinants of health and well-being.
Food security and nutrition
Forests play a crucial role in food security and nutrition, by providing a diversity of wild and cultivated foods, as well as supporting agricultural production through ecosystem services such as pollination, pest control, and soil fertility. Deforestation can lead to the loss or degradation of these food sources and services, affecting the quantity, quality, and diversity of diets, particularly for indigenous and local communities. For example, deforestation in the Amazon has been linked to reduced fish catches and fruit availability, with impacts on the nutrition and health of riverine communities (Peres et al., 2010). Deforestation can also affect the stability and resilience of food systems, by increasing the vulnerability to climate shocks, price volatility, and market fluctuations.
Trade-offs and Synergies
The impacts of deforestation by agriculture are complex and multifaceted, involving trade-offs and synergies between different goals and stakeholders. For example, the expansion of commercial agriculture can provide economic benefits, such as increased income, employment, and foreign exchange, but it can also lead to environmental and social costs, such as biodiversity loss, climate change, and land conflicts. Similarly, the intensification of subsistence agriculture can improve food security and reduce poverty, but it can also lead to soil degradation, water pollution, and loss of traditional knowledge and practices.
Managing these trade-offs and synergies requires a holistic and integrated approach that considers the multiple values and functions of forests, as well as the needs and rights of different stakeholders. This includes measures such as:
- Land-use planning and zoning: Identifying and prioritizing areas for forest conservation, sustainable use, and agricultural development, based on ecological, social, and economic criteria, and with the participation of relevant stakeholders.
- Sustainable intensification and agroforestry: Increasing agricultural productivity and sustainability through practices such as improved seeds, soil management, and pest control, as well as integrating trees and forests into agricultural landscapes for multiple benefits.
- Responsible supply chains and trade: Promoting the production and consumption of sustainable and deforestation-free agricultural commodities, through certification, traceability, and due diligence systems, as well as supporting the livelihoods and rights of small-scale producers and indigenous communities.
- Payments for ecosystem services and REDD+: Providing economic incentives for forest conservation and sustainable use, through mechanisms such as carbon credits, water funds, and biodiversity offsets, as well as supporting the participation and benefit-sharing of local communities.
Solutions and Ways Forward
Addressing the challenge of deforestation by agriculture requires a transformative change in the way we produce, trade, and consume agricultural products, as well as in the way we value and govern forests. This requires a concerted effort from all stakeholders, including governments, businesses, civil society, and local communities, to develop and implement solutions that are effective, equitable, and sustainable. Some of the key solutions and ways forward are:
Sustainable Intensification and Agroforestry
Sustainable intensification and agroforestry are two promising approaches to increase agricultural productivity and sustainability while reducing pressure on forests. Sustainable intensification involves increasing crop yields and resource efficiency through practices such as improved seeds, precision agriculture, and integrated pest management, without expanding the agricultural area. Agroforestry involves integrating trees and forests into agricultural landscapes, for multiple benefits such as soil fertility, water regulation, biodiversity conservation, and income diversification.
Some examples of sustainable intensification and agroforestry practices include:
- Conservation agriculture: Minimizing soil disturbance, maintaining soil cover, and diversifying crop rotations, to improve soil health, reduce erosion, and increase resilience to climate change.
- Integrated soil fertility management: Combining organic and inorganic fertilizers, as well as legumes and other soil-improving plants, to optimize nutrient availability and cycling, and reduce reliance on external inputs.
- Agroforestry systems: Integrating trees and crops in various spatial and temporal arrangements, such as alley cropping, silvopasture, and forest farming, to provide multiple products and services, such as timber, fruits, fodder, and carbon sequestration.
- Sustainable cattle intensification: Increasing cattle productivity through improved breeds, pasture management, and animal health, while reducing deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions from extensive ranching.
Sustainable intensification and agroforestry have the potential to increase agricultural production and income while reducing deforestation and environmental degradation. For example, a study in the Brazilian Amazon found that integrated crop-livestock-forestry systems could increase land productivity by 15-30% while reducing deforestation by 20-50% compared to conventional systems (Gil et al., 2015). However, the adoption and scaling of these practices require supportive policies, investments, and partnerships, as well as the participation and capacity-building of farmers and local communities.
Supply Chain Interventions and Zero-Deforestation Commitments
Supply chain interventions and zero-deforestation commitments are another important approach to reducing deforestation by agriculture, by promoting the production and consumption of sustainable and deforestation-free agricultural commodities. Supply chain interventions involve the engagement and collaboration of different actors along the supply chain, such as producers, traders, processors, and retailers, to improve the sustainability and traceability of agricultural products. Zero-deforestation commitments involve the voluntary or mandatory adoption of policies and practices to eliminate deforestation from supply chains, often in partnership with governments, civil society, and other stakeholders.
Some examples of supply chain interventions and zero-deforestation commitments include:
- Certification and labeling: Using third-party standards and labels, such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), the Rainforest Alliance, and the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), to verify and communicate the sustainability and deforestation-free status of agricultural products.
- Traceability and monitoring: Using technologies such as remote sensing, blockchain, and DNA barcoding, to trace the origin and movement of agricultural products, and monitor deforestation and other environmental impacts in real-time.
- Procurement policies and supplier engagement: Adopting sustainable procurement policies and engaging with suppliers to promote deforestation-free production, through measures such as supplier codes of conduct, purchasing preferences, and technical assistance.
- Jurisdictional and landscape approaches: Collaborating with governments, civil society, and other stakeholders to develop and implement sustainable land-use plans and policies at the jurisdictional or landscape level, such as the Produce, Conserve, Include (PCI) strategy in Mato Grosso, Brazil.
Supply chain interventions and zero-deforestation commitments have the potential to create market incentives and rewards for sustainable and deforestation-free production while leveraging the influence and resources of private sector actors. For example, the Soy Moratorium in the Brazilian Amazon, a voluntary agreement by major soy traders to avoid buying soy from deforested areas, has been credited with reducing deforestation by 80% in the region (Gibbs et al., 2015). However, the effectiveness and impact of these interventions depend on factors such as the level of ambition, transparency, and accountability, as well as the capacity and willingness of producers and other stakeholders to comply and participate.
Governance and Policy Reforms
Governance and policy reforms are a third critical approach to reducing deforestation by agriculture, by creating the enabling conditions and incentives for sustainable land use and forest conservation. Governance refers to the processes, institutions, and actors involved in making and implementing decisions about land and forests, at different scales and levels. Policy reforms refer to the changes in laws, regulations, and programs that influence land use and forest outcomes, such as tenure security, land-use planning, environmental protection, and agricultural subsidies.
Some examples of governance and policy reforms include:
- Land tenure and property rights: Clarifying and securing the land and resource rights of indigenous and local communities, as well as smallholders and women, through measures such as land titling, community forestry, and customary tenure recognition.
- Land-use planning and zoning: Developing and implementing participatory and evidence-based land-use plans and zoning regulations, that balance conservation, production, and development objectives, and respect the rights and needs of different stakeholders.
- Environmental and social safeguards: Strengthening and enforcing environmental and social safeguards, such as environmental impact assessments, free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC), and grievance mechanisms, to prevent and mitigate the negative impacts of agricultural and infrastructure projects.
- Fiscal and financial incentives: Reforming and aligning fiscal and financial incentives, such as taxes, subsidies, and credit lines, to promote sustainable and deforestation-free agriculture, and discourage unsustainable and illegal practices.
Governance and policy reforms have the potential to create a more enabling and equitable environment for sustainable land use and forest conservation, by addressing the underlying drivers and barriers of deforestation and empowering local communities and smallholders. For example, a study in Indonesia found that the recognition of indigenous and community land rights could reduce deforestation by 30-40% while increasing agricultural productivity and income (Ding et al., 2016). However, the success and sustainability of these reforms depend on factors such as political will, institutional capacity, and stakeholder participation and support.
Conclusion
Deforestation by agriculture is a complex and pressing challenge that threatens the health and well-being of people and the planet. It is driven by a combination of proximate and underlying causes, such as agricultural expansion, population growth, and international trade, and has far-reaching impacts on biodiversity, climate, water, soil, and human livelihoods and rights. Addressing this challenge requires a transformative change in the way we produce, trade, and consume agricultural products, as well as in the way we value and govern forests.
This article has provided an in-depth analysis of the drivers, impacts, and solutions to deforestation by agriculture, drawing on the latest scientific evidence and case studies from around the world. It has highlighted the urgent need for action and the potential of sustainable intensification, agroforestry, supply chain interventions, zero-deforestation commitments, and governance and policy reforms to reduce deforestation and promote sustainable land use.
However, these solutions are not silver bullets and require a concerted effort from all stakeholders, including governments, businesses, civil society, and local communities, to be effective, equitable, and sustainable. They also require a holistic and integrated approach that considers the multiple values and functions of forests, as well as the needs and rights of different stakeholders, particularly indigenous and local communities who are most affected by deforestation and have the greatest stake in forest conservation.
Moreover, these solutions need to be scaled up and accelerated, given the urgency and magnitude of the deforestation crisis, and the limited time left to achieve the global goals of the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals. This will require increased political will, financial resources, and technical capacity, as well as a shift in values and behaviors towards more sustainable and equitable ways of living and working with nature.
In conclusion, reducing deforestation by agriculture is not only an environmental imperative but also a moral and social one. It is about protecting the rich diversity of life on Earth, the stability and resilience of the climate and ecosystems, and the rights and dignity of present and future generations. It is about creating a more just and sustainable world, where people and nature can thrive together. The solutions and ways forward exist, but they require collective action, innovation, and leadership from all of us. The time to act is now.