Agriculture is a fundamental human activity that has enabled the growth and development of civilizations throughout history. It provides the food, fiber, and fuel that sustain human life and well-being, and employs over a billion people worldwide. However, agriculture is also a significant contributor to climate change, accounting for around 23% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2019).
The carbon footprint of farming refers to the total amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by agricultural activities, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). These emissions come from various sources, such as land-use change, soil management, livestock production, and energy use, and have far-reaching impacts on the environment, human health, and the economy.
Reducing the carbon footprint of farming is a critical challenge that requires a comprehensive understanding of the sources and drivers of agricultural emissions, as well as the development and implementation of effective mitigation strategies and policies.
Sources and Magnitude of Farming's Carbon Footprint
Scope and Definition
The carbon footprint of farming can be defined as the total amount of GHGs emitted by agricultural activities, expressed in terms of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e). CO2e is a metric that converts the warming potential of different GHGs into a common unit, based on their global warming potential (GWP) over a specific time horizon (usually 100 years).
The scope of farming's carbon footprint includes all GHG emissions associated with agricultural production, from land-use change and soil management to livestock production and energy use. It also includes the emissions associated with the manufacturing and transport of agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery, as well as the emissions associated with the processing, packaging, and distribution of agricultural products.
However, the exact scope and boundaries of farming's carbon footprint can vary depending on the methodology and assumptions used, as well as the specific context and purpose of the assessment. For example, some studies may focus only on the direct emissions from agricultural activities, while others may also include the indirect emissions from land-use change or the emissions from the consumption of agricultural products.
Global and Regional Estimates
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2019), agriculture accounted for around 23% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions in 2010, or around 12 GtCO2e per year. This includes emissions from agricultural soils (38%), enteric fermentation (32%), rice cultivation (11%), manure management (7%), and other sources (12%).
However, the magnitude and composition of farming's carbon footprint vary widely across regions and countries, depending on factors such as the type and intensity of agricultural systems, the availability and use of resources, and the socio-economic and policy context. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture accounts for around 15% of total GHG emissions, with the majority coming from enteric fermentation and manure management, while in Latin America and the Caribbean, agriculture accounts for around 23% of emissions, with the majority coming from agricultural soils and land-use change (FAO, 2021).
At the country level, the top emitters of agricultural GHGs are China (831 MtCO2e), India (745 MtCO2e), Brazil (452 MtCO2e), the United States (396 MtCO2e), and Indonesia (304 MtCO2e), together accounting for over 50% of global agricultural emissions (FAO, 2021). However, when expressed per capita or unit of agricultural output, the carbon footprint of farming can be higher in some developed countries, such as Australia, Canada, and the United States, due to the high intensity and resource use of their agricultural systems.
Key Emission Sources and Drivers
The main sources and drivers of farming's carbon footprint include:
- Land-use change: The conversion of natural ecosystems, such as forests and grasslands, to agricultural land is a major source of GHG emissions, particularly CO2. According to the IPCC (2019), land-use change accounted for around 6% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions in 2010, or around 3 GtCO2e per year. The main drivers of land-use change include population growth, economic development, and changing dietary preferences, which increase the demand for agricultural products and the pressure on land resources.
- Soil management: Agricultural soils are a significant source of GHG emissions, particularly N2O, which is produced by the microbial processes of nitrification and denitrification in the soil. According to the IPCC (2019), agricultural soils accounted for around 38% of total agricultural GHG emissions in 2010, or around 4.4 GtCO2e per year. The main drivers of soil emissions include the use of synthetic fertilizers, manure application, and tillage practices, which increase the availability and loss of nitrogen in the soil.
- Livestock production: Livestock production, particularly ruminant animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats, is a major source of GHG emissions, particularly CH4, which is produced by enteric fermentation in the digestive system of animals. According to the IPCC (2019), livestock production accounted for around 32% of total agricultural GHG emissions in 2010, or around 3.7 GtCO2e per year. The main drivers of livestock emissions include the number and type of animals, the quality and quantity of feed, and the management of manure.
- Rice cultivation: Rice cultivation is a significant source of GHG emissions, particularly CH4, which is produced by the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in flooded rice fields. According to the IPCC (2019), rice cultivation accounted for around 11% of total agricultural GHG emissions in 2010, or around 1.3 GtCO2e per year. The main drivers of rice emissions include the area and duration of flooding, the type and amount of organic inputs, and the management of straw and residues.
- Energy use: The use of energy in agriculture, such as fuel for machinery and electricity for irrigation and processing, is a significant source of GHG emissions, particularly CO2. According to the FAO (2021), energy use accounted for around 6% of total agricultural GHG emissions in 2010, or around 0.7 GtCO2e per year. The main drivers of energy emissions include the type and efficiency of energy sources, the intensity and scale of agricultural operations, and the distance and mode of transport of agricultural products.
Impacts of Farming's Carbon Footprint
Environmental Impacts
The carbon footprint of farming has significant and far-reaching impacts on the environment, affecting climate change, biodiversity loss, and ecosystem degradation.
Climate change is the most direct and urgent impact of farming's carbon footprint, as the accumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere leads to global warming, changes in precipitation patterns, and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. According to the IPCC (2019), agriculture is a major driver of climate change, accounting for around 23% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions, and is also highly vulnerable to its impacts, such as crop yield losses, water scarcity, and pest and disease outbreaks.
Biodiversity loss is another significant impact of farming's carbon footprint, as the conversion of natural ecosystems to agricultural land leads to the loss and fragmentation of habitats, the extinction of species, and the disruption of ecological processes. According to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES, 2019), agriculture is the leading driver of biodiversity loss, affecting over 80% of threatened species and contributing to the decline of pollinators, soil organisms, and other key species that support agricultural production and ecosystem services.
Ecosystem degradation is a third major impact of farming's carbon footprint, as the intensive and unsustainable use of land, water, and other resources leads to soil erosion, nutrient depletion, water pollution, and other forms of environmental damage. According to the FAO (2021), around 33% of the world's land is moderately to highly degraded, with agriculture being the main driver of degradation, particularly in drylands and other fragile ecosystems. Ecosystem degradation not only affects the productivity and resilience of agricultural systems, but also the provision of essential ecosystem services, such as water regulation, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation.
Socio-Economic Impacts
The carbon footprint of farming also has significant socio-economic impacts, affecting food security, livelihoods, and human health.
Food security is a critical concern, as climate change and environmental degradation can affect the availability, accessibility, and stability of food supplies, particularly for vulnerable and marginalized populations. According to the FAO (2021), climate change could increase the number of people at risk of hunger by 20% by 2050, with the greatest impacts in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Moreover, the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services can affect the nutritional quality and diversity of diets, as well as the resilience of agricultural systems to shocks and stresses.
Livelihoods are another important impact of farming's carbon footprint, as agriculture is the main source of income and employment for over a billion people worldwide, particularly in rural and developing areas. According to the World Bank (2021), agriculture employs around 27% of the global workforce and accounts for up to 60% of total employment in low-income countries. However, climate change and environmental degradation can affect the productivity and profitability of agricultural systems, leading to income losses, poverty, and migration, particularly for small-scale and subsistence farmers.
Human health is a third significant impact of farming's carbon footprint, as the environmental and socio-economic effects of agriculture can affect the physical and mental well-being of individuals and communities. For example, air pollution from agricultural activities, such as biomass burning and livestock production, can cause respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, while water pollution from fertilizer and pesticide use can lead to waterborne diseases and toxic exposures. Moreover, the loss of biodiversity and traditional knowledge can affect the availability and use of medicinal plants and other health-related resources.
Equity and Justice Implications
The impacts of farming's carbon footprint also raise important questions of equity and justice, as the costs and benefits of agriculture are often unevenly distributed across different social groups and regions.
For example, small-scale and subsistence farmers, who produce the majority of the world's food on less than 25% of the agricultural land, are often the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and environmental degradation but have the least access to resources and support for adaptation and mitigation. Moreover, women farmers, who account for over 40% of the agricultural labor force in developing countries, face additional challenges and discrimination in access to land, credit, technology, and other productive resources.
Indigenous peoples and local communities, who have been stewards of biodiversity and traditional knowledge for generations, are also disproportionately affected by the expansion and intensification of agriculture, which can lead to the loss of their lands, livelihoods, and cultural heritage. Moreover, the commodification and privatization of seeds, genetic resources, and other agricultural inputs can undermine the rights and autonomy of these communities, as well as their ability to adapt to changing conditions.
At the global level, there are also significant disparities in the contribution and vulnerability of farming's carbon footprint across different countries and regions. For example, developed countries, which have historically been the main emitters of GHGs, have greater responsibility and capacity to reduce their emissions and support adaptation and mitigation efforts in developing countries, which are often the most affected by climate change and have the least resources to cope with its impacts.
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies
Sustainable Intensification
Sustainable intensification is a key strategy for reducing farming's carbon footprint while meeting the growing demand for food and other agricultural products. It involves increasing agricultural productivity and efficiency while minimizing environmental impacts and enhancing ecosystem services.
Some examples of sustainable intensification practices include:
- Precision agriculture: The use of precision agriculture technologies, such as remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and variable rate application, can help optimize the use of inputs, such as fertilizers, water, and energy, based on the specific needs and conditions of each field or crop. This can reduce the overuse and waste of resources, as well as the emissions of GHGs and other pollutants.
- Conservation agriculture: The adoption of conservation agriculture practices, such as reduced tillage, crop rotation, and cover cropping, can help improve soil health, reduce erosion, and enhance carbon sequestration. This can also reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, as well as the emissions associated with their production and use.
- Agroforestry: The integration of trees and shrubs into agricultural systems, such as through alley cropping, silvopasture, or windbreaks, can provide multiple benefits, such as increased carbon storage, improved soil fertility, enhanced biodiversity, and diversified income sources. This can also reduce the pressure on natural forests and other ecosystems, as well as the emissions from land-use change.
- Improved livestock management: The adoption of improved livestock management practices, such as improved feeding, breeding, and health care, can help increase animal productivity and reduce emissions intensity. This can also reduce the need for land and other resources, as well as the emissions from enteric fermentation and manure management.
Agroecology and Nature-Based Solutions
Agroecology and nature-based solutions are another important strategy for reducing farming's carbon footprint while enhancing the resilience and sustainability of agricultural systems. They involve working with nature and harnessing ecological processes to support food production and ecosystem services.
Some examples of agroecology and nature-based solutions include:
- Diversification: The diversification of agricultural systems, such as through intercropping, crop rotation, or polyculture, can help increase the resilience and stability of production, as well as the provision of ecosystem services, such as pest control, pollination, and nutrient cycling. This can also reduce the reliance on external inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, as well as the emissions associated with their production and use.
- Ecological intensification: The intensification of ecological processes, such as the use of legumes for nitrogen fixation, the promotion of beneficial insects for pest control, or the recycling of organic matter for soil fertility, can help increase the productivity and sustainability of agricultural systems. This can also reduce the need for synthetic inputs and the emissions associated with their production and use.
- Restoration and conservation: The restoration and conservation of natural ecosystems, such as forests, wetlands, and grasslands, can provide multiple benefits for agriculture and the environment, such as increased carbon storage, improved water regulation, enhanced biodiversity, and reduced soil erosion. This can also reduce the pressure on agricultural land and the emissions from land-use change.
- Ecosystem-based adaptation: The use of ecosystem-based approaches for adapting to climate change, such as through the protection and restoration of coastal ecosystems for flood control, the use of agroforestry for microclimate regulation, or the conservation of crop wild relatives for genetic diversity, can help increase the resilience and adaptability of agricultural systems. This can also reduce the vulnerability of farmers and communities to climate-related risks and impacts.
Circular and Low-Carbon Economy
A circular and low-carbon economy is a third important strategy for reducing farming's carbon footprint while creating new opportunities for sustainable development. It involves the transition from a linear and fossil-based economy to a circular and renewable-based economy, where waste and emissions are minimized and resources are used efficiently and effectively.
Some examples of circular and low-carbon economy practices in agriculture include:
- Waste reduction and valorization: The reduction and valorization of agricultural waste, such as through the use of crop residues for bioenergy, the recycling of animal manure for fertilizer, or the upcycling of food waste for animal feed, can help close nutrient and carbon cycles, reduce emissions, and create new economic opportunities. This can also reduce the need for virgin resources and the emissions associated with their extraction and processing.
- Renewable energy and electrification: The transition to renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, or bioenergy, and the electrification of agricultural operations, such as irrigation, processing, and transport, can help reduce the reliance on fossil fuels and the emissions associated with their combustion. This can also increase the efficiency and competitiveness of agricultural systems, as well as the energy security and autonomy of rural communities.
- Bio-based and eco-friendly products: The development and promotion of bio-based and eco-friendly products, such as bioplastics, bio-textiles, or bio-based chemicals, can help create new markets and value chains for agricultural products while reducing the environmental impact of consumption and production. This can also increase the income and livelihoods of farmers and rural communities, as well as the sustainability and circularity of the broader economy.
- Carbon markets and payments for ecosystem services: The development and implementation of carbon markets and payments for ecosystem services, such as through carbon offsetting, carbon farming, or ecosystem service credits, can help create new incentives and rewards for sustainable and low-carbon agriculture. This can also help internalize the environmental and social costs and benefits of agriculture, as well as the value of ecosystem services and public goods.
Enabling Policies and Investments
Enabling policies and investments is a fourth critical strategy for reducing farming's carbon footprint while supporting sustainable and inclusive development. They involve creating the institutional, financial, and technological conditions that enable and accelerate the adoption and scaling of sustainable and low-carbon agriculture practices.
Some examples of enabling policies and investments include:
- Research and innovation: The investment in research and innovation for sustainable and low-carbon agriculture, such as through public and private partnerships, technology transfer, or capacity building, can help develop and disseminate new knowledge, technologies, and practices that can reduce emissions, enhance resilience, and create new opportunities. This can also help address the specific needs and challenges of different regions, sectors, and stakeholders.
- Extension and advisory services: The provision of extension and advisory services, such as through public and private extension systems, farmer field schools, or digital platforms, can help build the capacity and skills of farmers and other stakeholders to adopt and implement sustainable and low-carbon agriculture practices. This can also help facilitate the sharing of knowledge, experiences, and lessons learned, as well as the co-creation of solutions and innovations.
- Fiscal and financial incentives: The use of fiscal and financial incentives, such as through taxes, subsidies, or credit, can help create the economic and financial conditions that encourage and reward sustainable and low-carbon agriculture practices. This can also help address the barriers and risks associated with the adoption of new practices, such as the upfront costs, the lack of access to finance, or the uncertainty of returns.
- Regulatory and legal frameworks: The development and enforcement of regulatory and legal frameworks, such as through standards, certifications, or land tenure, can help create the institutional and governance conditions that enable and regulate sustainable and low-carbon agriculture practices. This can also help ensure the transparency, accountability, and equity of the transition to sustainable and low-carbon agriculture, as well as the protection of the rights and interests of different stakeholders.
- Multi-stakeholder partnerships and platforms: The establishment and strengthening of multi-stakeholder partnerships and platforms, such as through value chain collaborations, landscape initiatives, or policy dialogues, can help create the social and political conditions that facilitate and coordinate sustainable and low-carbon agriculture practices. This can also help mobilize resources, share risks and benefits, and create synergies and co-benefits across different sectors, scales, and stakeholders.
Conclusion
The carbon footprint of farming is a complex and pressing challenge that requires urgent and concerted action from all stakeholders, including farmers, governments, businesses, and civil society. Agriculture is both a major contributor to climate change, accounting for around 23% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions, and a major victim of its impacts, affecting food security, livelihoods, and ecosystems.
Reducing farming's carbon footprint is not only necessary for mitigating climate change and achieving the Paris Agreement goals, but also for building a more sustainable, resilient, and equitable food system that can meet the needs and aspirations of current and future generations. This requires a systemic and transformative approach that addresses the root causes and drivers of unsustainable and high-carbon agriculture, as well as the barriers and opportunities for sustainable and low-carbon alternatives.
The strategies and practices highlighted in this article, such as sustainable intensification, agroecology and nature-based solutions, circular and low-carbon economy, and enabling policies and investments, offer a range of options and pathways for reducing farming's carbon footprint while delivering multiple benefits for people and the planet. However, their adoption and scaling require a fundamental shift in the way we produce, consume, and value food and agriculture, as well as a new social contract between farmers, consumers, and policymakers.
This shift must be based on a shared vision and narrative of a sustainable and low-carbon food system that is grounded in science, ethics, and justice, and that recognizes the diverse roles, values, and perspectives of different stakeholders. It must also be supported by a comprehensive and coherent policy and investment framework that creates the enabling conditions and incentives for the transition while addressing the trade-offs and distributional impacts.
Moreover, the transition to a sustainable and low-carbon food system must be inclusive, participatory, and equitable, ensuring that the costs and benefits are fairly shared and that the rights and interests of vulnerable and marginalized groups, such as small-scale farmers, women, and indigenous peoples, are protected and promoted. This requires a new governance and accountability framework that empowers and engages these groups in the decision-making and implementation processes, as well as a new metrics and monitoring system that captures the multiple dimensions and impacts of sustainable and low-carbon agriculture.
Finally, the transition to a sustainable and low-carbon food system must be urgently accelerated and scaled up, given the narrow window of opportunity to limit global warming to 1.5°C and avoid the worst impacts of climate change. This requires a massive mobilization of resources, knowledge, and political will from all actors and sectors, as well as a new spirit of collaboration, innovation, and leadership.
The challenge of reducing farming's carbon footprint is daunting, but it is also an opportunity to create a better and more sustainable future for all. By working together and leveraging the best available science, technology, and practices, we can transform agriculture from a major driver of climate change to a major solution for climate action, while also achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Agreement targets.
This transformation will not be easy or quick, but it is necessary and possible. It will require a fundamental rethinking of our relationship with food, nature, and each other, as well as a new social contract between farmers, consumers, and policymakers. But it will also unlock enormous benefits and opportunities for people and the planet, from improved health and nutrition to increased biodiversity and resilience, from new jobs and incomes to reduced poverty and inequality.
The time for action is now. We cannot afford to wait or delay any longer. Every year of inaction or insufficient action will make the challenge harder and the impacts worse. We need to act with urgency, ambition, and solidarity, and we need to start today.
Let us seize this moment and this opportunity to create a new food system that is sustainable, resilient, and equitable, and that can feed the world without destroying the planet. Let us work together and learn from each other, and let us be guided by the best available science, ethics, and values. Let us be bold and courageous, and let us not be afraid to challenge the status quo and the vested interests.
The future of food and farming, and the future of our planet and our children, depend on the choices and actions we make today. Let us choose wisely and act decisively, for the sake of ourselves and for the sake of generations to come.